Lieberman, A. F., Weston, D. R., & Pawl, J. H. (1991). Preventive interaction and outcome with anxiously attached dyads. Child Development, 62, 199–209. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1467-8624.1991.tb01525.x

Type of Study: Randomized controlled trial
Number of Participants: 93 mother-child pairs

Population:

• Age — Children: 11–14 months; Adults: 21–39 years
• Race/Ethnicity — Children: Not specified, Adults: 100% Mexican and Central American
• Gender — Children: 44% Male; Adults: 100% Female
• Status — Participants were mothers who were recent immigrants and their children with low socioeconomic status (SES) and recruited from pediatric clinics.

Location/Institution: California

Summary: (To include basic study design, measures, results, and notable limitations)
The purpose of the study was to test the efficacy of Infant-Parent Psychotherapy [now called Child-Parent Psychotherapy (CPP)] in mother-infant pairs who were anxiously attached. Participants were randomly assigned to either the Infant-Parent Psychotherapy intervention group or a nonintervention control group. Measures utilized include the Strange Situation, the Maternal Attitude Scale, and the Life Event Inventory. A second control group was also formed, consisting of pairs who were found at baseline to be securely attached. Results indicate that intervention group pairs had higher scores in empathic responsiveness and goal-corrected partnership and lower scores on angry behavior by the child than anxious control pairs. The intervention group did not differ from the anxious control group on attachment security, although intervention children were less likely to show proximity avoidance and contact resistance. Both the intervention group and anxious control group improved in maternal child-rearing attitudes over time. Although the secure control group still had higher secure attachment scores at the follow-up than the intervention group, the two groups did not differ significantly on other outcomes at the end of the intervention. Limitations include small sample, lack of postintervention follow-up, and lack of generalizability.

Length of controlled postintervention follow-up: None.

Cicchetti, D., Toth, S. L., & Rogosch, F. A. (1999). The efficacy of Toddler-Parent psychotherapy to increase attachment security in off-spring of depressed mothers. Attachment & Human Development, 1(1), 34–66. https://doi.org/10.1080/14616739900134021

Type of Study: Randomized controlled trial
Number of Participants: 108 mother-child pairs

Population:

• Age — Children: Mean=20.4 months (approx. 1.7 years); Adults: 22–41 years
• Race/Ethnicity — Children: Not specified; Adults: 95% Caucasian
• Gender — Children: 50% Male and 50% Female; Adults: 100% Female
• Status — Participants were depressed mothers with at least a high school education recruited through media and referrals from mental health professionals or mothers who lived in the vicinity of these mothers that were screened to create the nondepressed control group.

Location/Institution: Not specified

Summary: (To include basic study design, measures, results, and notable limitations)
The purpose of the study was to test the efficacy of Toddler-Parent Psychotherapy [now called Child-Parent Psychotherapy (CPP)] in depressed mothers of young children. Participants were randomly assigned to receive Toddler-Parent Psychotherapy or to a nonintervention control group. There was also a second control group of mothers from the same community who did not have any prior diagnosis of a mental disorder. Measures utilized include the Diagnostic Interview Schedule (DIS-III-R), the Beck Depression Inventory (BDI), and the Attachment Q-set (AQS). Results indicate that both the intervention and depressed control groups had a higher proportion of insecurely attached children than the nondepressed control at baseline. At follow-up, the intervention group's proportion of insecurely attached children had decreased to the point that it was no longer significantly different from that of the nondepressed control group, while the depressed control group experienced an increase in insecure attachment. Limitations include the decision to omit mothers from low socioeconomic groups, the use of a more subjective method of classifying children's attachment, small sample size, lack of postintervention follow-up, and lack of generalizability.

Length of controlled postintervention follow-up: None.

Cicchetti, D., Rogosch, F. A., & Toth, S. L. (2000). The efficacy Toddler-Parent Psychotherapy for fostering cognitive development in offspring of depressed mothers. Journal of Abnormal Child Psychology, 28(2), 135–148. https://doi.org/10.1023/A:1005118713814

Type of Study: Randomized controlled trial
Number of Participants: 158 mother-child pairs

Population:

• Age — Children: Mean=20.47 months (approx. 1.71 years); Adults: 22–41 years
• Race/Ethnicity — Children: Not specified; Adults: 92% Caucasian
• Gender — Children: 81 Male and 77 Female; Adults: 100% Female
• Status — Participants were mothers of non-low socioeconomic status recruited through mental health professionals and the media or mothers who lived in the vicinity of these mothers that were screened to create the nondepressed control group.

Location/Institution: Not specified

Summary: (To include basic study design, measures, results, and notable limitations)
The study includes participants from Cicchetti et al. (1999). The purpose of the study was to test the efficacy of Toddler-Parent Psychotherapy [now called Child-Parent Psychotherapy (CPP)] in depressed mothers of young children. Participants were randomly assigned to either Toddler-Parent Psychotherapy (DI group) or a nonintervention group (DC group). In addition, a control group of mothers with no history of psychiatric disorder was formed (NC group). Measures utilized include the Diagnostic Interview Schedule (DIS-III-R), the Beck Depression Inventory (BDI), the Bayley Mental Development Index (MDI), and the Wechsler Preschool and Primary Scales of Intelligence (WPPSI-R). Results indicate that, although there were no differences in child intelligence across groups at baseline, differences in cognitive functioning were obtained at age 3. The depressed control group diverged from the normal comparison group, as evidenced by a relative decline in age-expected cognitive skills, particularly if their mothers had a subsequent depressive episode. Limitations include high attrition, the absence of the inclusion of an assessment of mother-child interaction, and lack of follow-up.

Length of controlled postintervention follow-up: None.

Toth, S. L., Maughan, A., Manly, J. T., Spagnola, M., & Cicchetti, D. (2002). The relative efficacy of two interventions in altering maltreated preschool children's representational models: Implications for attachment theory. Development and Psychopathology, 14, 877–908. https://doi.org/10.1017/S095457940200411X

Type of Study: Randomized controlled trial
Number of Participants: 122 mother-child pairs

Population:

• Age — Children: Mean=48.14 months (approx. 4.0 years); Adults: Not specified
• Race/Ethnicity — Children: 76% Minority and 28% Nonminority; Adults: Not specified
• Gender — Children: 68 Male and 54 Female; Adults: 100% Female
• Status — Participants were families with a documented history of maltreatment recruited from the Department of Social Services or randomly recruited from families receiving Temporary Assistance to Needy Families (TANF) and screened for history of maltreatment.

Location/Institution: Not specified

Summary: (To include basic study design, measures, results, and notable limitations)
The purpose of the study was to test the efficacy of Preschooler-Parent Psychotherapy (PPP) [now called Child-Parent Psychotherapy (CPP)]. Participants were randomly assigned to the PPP, psychoeducational home visitation (PHV), or community standard (CS) groups. A comparison group (NC) of low-income mothers and children with no history of maltreatment was also included. Measures utilized include the Wechsler Preschool and Primary Scale of Intelligence (WPPSI-R). Results indicated that the PPP children showed reductions in problematic maternal representations compared to PHV group children and greater reductions in negative self-representations compared to all other groups. Mother-child relationship expectations also became more positive than for the NC and PHV groups. Limitations include small sample size and lack of postintervention follow-up.

Length of controlled postintervention follow-up: None.

Lieberman, A. F., Van Horn, P., & Ghosh Ippen, C. (2005). Toward evidence-based treatment: Child-Parent Psychotherapy with preschoolers exposed to marital violence. Journal of the American Academy of Child and Adolescent Psychiatry, 44(12), 1241–1248. https://doi.org/10.1097/01.chi.0000181047.59702.58

Type of Study: Randomized controlled trial
Number of Participants: 75 mother-child pairs

Population:

• Age — 3–5 years; Adults: Not specified
• Race/Ethnicity — Children: 39% Mixed Ethnicity, 28% Latino, 15% African American, 9% White, 7% Asian, and 3% Other; Adults: 37% Latina, 24% White, 15% African American, 13% Mixed or Other, and 11% Asian
• Gender — Children: 39 Female and 36 Male; Adults: 100% Female
• Status — Participants were referred by court, Child Protective Services (CPS), or other community services after child witnessed marital violence.

Location/Institution: California

Summary: (To include basic study design, measures, results, and notable limitations)
The purpose of the study was to test the efficacy of Child-Parent Psychotherapy (CPP). Participants were randomly assigned to either the CPP treatment group or to a comparison group receiving case management and referral to individual treatment in the community for mother and child. Measures utilized include the Child's Exposure to Community Violence: Parent Report Version, the Child Behavior Checklist (CBCL), the Semistructured Interview for Diagnostic Classification DC: 0-3 for Clinicians, the Life Stressor Checklist, the Clinician Administered PTSD Scale, and the Symptoms Checklist-90. Results indicate that CPP group children showed a significant decline in posttraumatic stress disorder (PTSD) symptoms and behavior problems at the conclusion of the study, while comparison group children did not. Mothers in the CPP group showed significant reductions in avoidant symptoms and there was a moderate effect on general distress and PTSD symptoms. Limitations include a small sample, lack of postintervention follow-up, and reliance on maternal report.

Length of controlled postintervention follow-up: None.

Cicchetti, D., Rogosh, F. A., & Toth, S. L. (2006). Fostering secure attachment in infants in maltreating families through preventive interventions. Development and Psychopathology, 18, 623–649. https://doi.org/10.1017/S0954579406060329

Type of Study: Randomized controlled trial
Number of Participants: 189 mother-child pairs

Population:

• Age — Children: Mean=13.3 months; Adults: Mean=28.67 years
• Race/Ethnicity — Children: Not specified; Adults: 74% Minority Race/Ethnicity
• Gender — Children: 101 Female and 88 Male; Adults: 100% Female
• Status — Participants were infants in maltreating families and their mothers recruited through a Department of Human Services (DHS) liaison or through the Temporary Assistance to Needy Families (TANF) rolls.

Location/Institution: Not specified

Summary: (To include basic study design, measures, results, and notable limitations)
The purpose of the study was to test the efficacy of Infant Parent Psychotherapy (IPP) [now called Child-Parent Psychotherapy (CPP)]. Participants were randomly assigned to receive IPP, psychoeducational parenting intervention (PPI), or to a community standards control group (CS). An additional comparison group (NC) from low-income nonmaltreating families was also included. Measures utilized include the Childhood Trauma Questionnaire (CTQ), the Perceptions of Adult Attachment Scale (PAAS), the Maternal Behavior Q-Set (MBQ), the Adult-Adolescent Parenting Inventory (AAPI), the Social Support Behaviors Scale (SSBS), the Parenting Stress Inventory (PSI), and the Strange Situation. Results indicate that at baseline, infants in the maltreatment groups showed higher levels of disorganized attachment. At postintervention, children in the IPP and PPI groups showed significant increases in levels of secure attachment, relative to the CS and NC groups. Limitations include lack of postintervention follow-up and inconsistent maternal engagement in intervention.

Length of controlled postintervention follow-up: None.

Lieberman, A. F., Ghosh Ippen, C., & Van Horn, P. (2006). Child-Parent Psychotherapy: 6-month follow-up of a randomized controlled trial. Journal of the American Academy of Child and Adolescent Psychiatry, 45(8), 913–918. https://doi.org/10.1097/01.chi.0000222784.03735.92

Type of Study: Randomized controlled trial
Number of Participants: 50 mother-child pairs

Population:

• Age — Children: 3–5 years; Adults: Not specified
• Race/Ethnicity — Children: 38% Mixed Ethnicity, 28% Latino, 16% African American, 12% White, 4% Asian, and 2% Other; Adults: 37% Latina, 24% White, 15% African American, 13% Mixed or Other, and 1% Asian
• Gender — Children: 28 Male and 22 Female; Adults: 100% Female
• Status — Participants were referred by court, Child Protective Services (CPS), or other community services after child witnessed marital violence.

Location/Institution: California

Summary: (To include basic study design, measures, results, and notable limitations)
The study uses the same sample as Lieberman et al. (2005). The purpose of the study was to test the efficacy of Child-Parent Psychotherapy (CPP). Participants were randomly assigned to either the CPP treatment group or to a comparison group. Measures utilized include the Child Behavior Checklist (CBCL) and the Global Severity Index (GSI). Results indicate that in a comparison of baseline and 6-month follow-up scores, the CPP treatment children showed significant reductions in problem behaviors while the control group did not. Similarly, only the CPP group mothers showed a significant improvement in distress levels at 6 months. Limitations include small sample size and reliance on maternal report.

Length of controlled postintervention follow-up: 6 months.

Toth, S. L., Rogosch, F. A., Manly, J. T., & Cicchetti, D. (2006). The efficacy of toddler-parent psychotherapy to reorganize attachment in the young offspring of mothers with major depressive disorder: A randomized preventive trial. Journal of Consulting and Clinical Psychology, 74(6), 1006–1016. https://doi.org/10.1037/0022-006X.74.6.1006

Type of Study: Randomized controlled trial
Number of Participants: 198 mother-child pairs

Population:

• Age — Children: Mean=20.34 months (approx. 1.65 years); Adults: Mean=31.68 years
• Race/Ethnicity — Children: Not specified; Adults: 93% European American
• Gender — Children: 53% Male and 47% Female; Adults: 100% Female
• Status — Participants were mothers of non-low socioeconomic status recruited through mental health professionals and the media or mothers who lived in the vicinity of these mothers that were screened to create the nondepressed control group.

Location/Institution: Not specified

Summary: (To include basic study design, measures, results, and notable limitations)
The study includes the same sample as Cicchetti et al. (1999). The purpose of the study was to test the efficacy of Toddler-Parent Psychotherapy [now called Child-Parent Psychotherapy (CPP)] in depressed mothers of young children. Participants were randomly assigned to Toddler-Parent Psychotherapy (DI) or the nonintervention (DC) groups. A control group of nondepressed mothers (NC) was also created by directly contacting families. Measures utilized include the Diagnostic Interview Schedule (DIS-III-R), the Beck Depression Inventory (BDI) and the Strange Situation. Results indicate that both groups with depressed mothers showed insecure attachment at baseline. At postintervention, the rate of secure attachment in the DI group was higher than both the NC and DC groups. Limitations include lack of generalizability to higher risk populations, small sample size, and lack of postintervention follow-up.

Length of controlled postintervention follow-up: None.

Weiner, D. A., Schneider, A., & Lyons, J. S. (2009). Evidence-based treatments for trauma among culturally diverse foster care youth: Treatment retention and outcomes. Children and Youth Services Review, 31(11), 1199–1205. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.childyouth.2009.08.013

Type of Study: Randomized controlled trial
Number of Participants: 65 children

Population:

• Age — 0-6 years
• Race/Ethnicity — 35 African American, 19 Hispanic, 19 White, and 9 Biracial
• Gender — 49% Male and 51% Female
• Status — Participants were in a wraparound foster care program.

Location/Institution: 6 agencies that provide System of Care wraparound programs that were selected by the Illinois Department of Children and Family Services (IDCFS)

Summary: (To include basic study design, measures, results, and notable limitations)
The purpose of the study was to test the efficacy of three treatments: Child Parent Psychotherapy (CPP), Trauma-Focused Cognitive Behavioral Treatment (TF-CBT), and Structured Psychotherapy for Adolescents Responding to Chronic Stress (SPARCS). Participants were randomized to one of the three conditions. Measures utilized include the Child and Adolescent Needs and Strengths (CANS), the Brief Infant Toddler Social Emotional Assessment (BITSEA), the Youth Outcomes Questionnaire (YOQ), the Devereux Early Childhood Assessment Clinical Form (DECA-C), and the UCLA-PTSD measure. Results indicated that CPP was universally effective across racial/ethnic subgroups. CPP significantly reduced placement interruptions. Limitations include generalizability, small sample size, and attrition.

Length of controlled postintervention follow-up: 6 months.

Ippen, C. G., Harris, W. W., Van Horn, P., & Lieberman, A. F. (2011). Traumatic and stressful events in early childhood: Can treatment help those at highest risk? Child Abuse & Neglect, 35(7), 504–513. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.chiabu.2011.03.009

Type of Study: Randomized controlled trial
Number of Participants: 75 mother–child dyads

Population:

• Age — Children: 3–5 years; Adults: Mean=31.48 years
• Race/Ethnicity — Children: 39% Mixed Ethnicity, 28% Latino, 15% African American, 9% White, 7% Asian, and 3% Other; Adults: 37% Latina, 24% White, 15% African American, 13% Mixed or Other, and 11% Asian
• Gender — Children: 39 Female and 36 Male; Adults: 100% Female
• Status — Participants were referred by court, Child Protective Services (CPS), or other community services after child witnessed marital violence.

Location/Institution: California

Summary: (To include basic study design, measures, results, and notable limitations)
The study analyzed data from a previous study done by Lieberman et al. (2005). The purpose of the study was to test the efficacy of Child Parent Psychotherapy (CPP). Participants were randomly assigned to either the CPP treatment group or to a comparison group. Measures utilized include the Child's Exposure to Community Violence: Parent Report Version, the Child Behavior Checklist (CBCL), the Semistructured Interview for Diagnostic Classification DC: 0-3 for Clinicians, the Life Stressor Checklist, the Clinician Administered PTSD Scale, and the Symptoms Checklist-90. Traumatic and stressful events (TSEs) were calculated through acestudy.org. Results indicate that the CPP group children exposed to 4+ TSEs showed a significant improvement on posttraumatic stress disorder (PTSD) and depression symptoms and behavior problems at the conclusion of the study, while comparison group children did not. Children with exposure to fewer TSEs also showed significant improvement. Mothers in the CPP group showed significant reductions in avoidant symptoms and there was a moderate effect on general distress and PTSD symptoms. Limitations include a small sample, reliance on maternal report, and dichotomizing children into only two TSE risk groups.

Length of controlled postintervention follow-up: 6 months.

Cicchetti, D., Rogosch, F. A., Toth, S. L., & Sturge-Apple, M. L. (2011). Normalizing the development of cortisol regulation in maltreated infants through preventive interventions. Development and Psychopathology, 23(3), 789–800. https://doi.org/10.1017/S0954579411000307

Type of Study: Randomized controlled trial
Number of Participants: 143 mother-child pairs

Population:

• Age — Children: Mean=13.3 months; Mothers: Mean=26.9 years
• Race/Ethnicity — Children: Not specified; Adults: 73% Minority Race/Ethnicity
• Gender — Children: Not specified; Adults: 100% Female
• Status — Participants were infants in maltreating families and their mothers recruited through a Department of Human Services (DHS) liaison or through the Temporary Assistance to Needy Families (TANF) rolls.

Location/Institution: Not specified

Summary: (To include basic study design, measures, results, and notable limitations)
The study used a subset of participants from Cicchetti et al. (2006). The purpose of the study was to test the efficacy of Child-Parent Psychotherapy (CPP). Participants were randomly assigned to receive CPP, a psychoeducational parenting intervention (PPI), or to a community standards control group (CS). An additional comparison group (NC) from low-income nonmaltreating families was also included. Measures utilized include the Maternal Maltreatment Classification Interview and salivary cortisol samples. Saliva samples to measure cortisol levels were obtained from children at 10:00 a.m. before beginning a laboratory observation session with their mothers when the children were 13 months of age (preintervention), 19 months (midintervention), 26 months (postintervention), and 38 months (1-year postintervention follow-up). Results indicate that the CPP and PPI group revealed the same levels of morning cortisol as the nonmaltreated control group, while the CS control group showed statistically significant lower levels of morning cortisol. Limitations include only using one cortisol sample per time period, the non-inclusion of other biomarkers of allostatic load, inability to delineate definitive mechanisms of change that contributed to the differential patterns of cortisol regulation, and the lack of generalizability due to the exclusion of maltreated infants in foster care in this study.

Length of controlled postintervention follow-up: 1 year.

Stronach, E. P., Toth, S. L., Rogosch, F., & Cicchetti, D. (2013). Preventive interventions and sustained attachment security in maltreated children. Development and Psychopathology, 25(4pt1), 919–930. https://doi.org/10.1017/S0954579413000278

Type of Study: Randomized controlled trial
Number of Participants: 137 mother-child pairs

Population:

• Age — Children: Mean=13.3 months; Adults: Mean=26.9 years
• Race/Ethnicity — Children: 60% African-American, 18% White, 6% Latino, 16% Biracial/Other; Adults: 54% African-American, 25% White, 12% Latino, 9% Biracial/Other
• Gender — Children: Not specified; Adults: 100% Female
• Status — Participants were infants in maltreating families and their mothers recruited through a Department of Human Services (DHS) liaison or through the Temporary Assistance to Needy Families (TANF) rolls.

Location/Institution: Not specified

Summary: (To include basic study design, measures, results, and notable limitations)
The purpose of the study was to test the efficacy of Child-Parent Psychotherapy (CPP). Participants were randomly assigned to receive CPP, a psychoeducational parenting intervention (PPI), or to a community standards control group (CS). An additional comparison group (NC) from low-income nonmaltreating families was also included. Measures utilized include the Strange Situation paradigm, the Attachment Organization in Preschool Children: Procedures and Coding Manual, the Childhood Trauma Questionnaire—Short Form (CTQSF), the Diagnostic Interview Schedule—Version IV (DIS-IV), and the Child Behavior Checklist/2–3 (CBCL). Results indicate that the CPP group revealed higher rates of secure attachment and the maintenance of secure attachment in children 1 year after the conclusion of intervention. Limitations include results may be generalizable only to maltreating, multiproblem families willing to participate and agree to random assignment, study results may not be replicated in circumstances under which clinicians are not provided adequate time for training, supervision, and client outreach and due to the relatively small cell size for the insecure–avoidant and the insecure–ambivalent attachment categories, comparisons were limited to secure versus insecure and organized versus disorganized attachment.

Length of controlled postintervention follow-up: 1 year.

Toth, S. L., Sturge-Apple, M. L., Rogosch, F. A., & Cicchetti, D. (2015). Mechanisms of change: Testing how preventative interventions impact psychological and physiological stress functioning in mothers in neglectful families. Development and Psychopathology, 27(4pt2), 1661–1674. https://doi.org/10.1017/S0954579415001017

Type of Study: Randomized controlled trial
Number of Participants: 157 mother-child pairs

Population:

• Age — Children: Mean=13.3 months; Adults: Mean=26.9 years
• Race/Ethnicity — Children: 60% African-American, 18% White, 6% Latino, and 16% Biracial/Other; Adults: 54% African-American, 25% White, 12% Latino, and 9% Biracial/Other
• Gender — Children: Not specified; Adults: 100% Female
• Status — Participants were infants in maltreating families and their mothers recruited through a Department of Human Services (DHS) liaison or through the Temporary Assistance to Needy Families (TANF) rolls.

Location/Institution: Not specified

Summary: (To include basic study design, measures, results, and notable limitations)
The study used a subset of participants from Cicchetti et al. (2006). This purpose of the study was to test the efficacy of Child-Parent Psychotherapy (CPP). Participants were randomly assigned to receive CPP, a psychoeducational parenting intervention (PPI), or to a community standards control group (CS). An additional comparison group (NC) from low-income nonmaltreating families was also included. Measures utilized include the Parenting Stress Index and mid-morning cortisol samples. Results indicate that the mothers from the CPP group revealed decreased child-related stress from intake to post-intervention. There were no changes in basal cortisol in the CPP group, compared to that of the NC and CS groups, suggesting elevated physiological success. There were also reductions in child-related stress by posttreatment decrease in basal cortisol at follow-up. Limitations include lack of generalizability, small sample size, and only having one cortisol measure at follow-up.

Length of controlled postintervention follow-up: 1 year.

Guild, D. J., Toth, S. L., Handley, E. D., Rogosch, F. A., & Cicchetti, D. (2017). Attachment security mediates the longitudinal association between Child-Parent Psychotherapy and peer relations for toddlers of depressed mothers. Development and Psychopathology, 29(2), 587–600. https://doi.org/10.1017/S0954579417000207

Type of Study: Randomized controlled trial
Number of Participants: 130 mother-child pairs

Population:

• Age — Children: Mean=9.77 years; Adults: Mean=31.68 years
• Race/Ethnicity — Children: 119 White, 5 Black, 4 Hispanic, and 2 Other; Adults: 93% European American
• Gender — Children: 53% Male and 47% Female; Adults: 100% Female
• Status — Participants were children and their mothers with a history of major depressive disorder (MDD) since giving birth to their child.

Location/Institution: Not specified

Summary: (To include basic study design, measures, results, and notable limitations)
The study used a subset of participants from Cicchetti et al. (1999). The purpose of the study was to examine follow-up data of teachers’ reports on participants’ competence with classroom peers when they were approximately 9 years old to determine postintervention attachment status as a mediator of the association between Child Parent Psychotherapy (CPP) for depressed mothers and their offspring and subsequent peer relations among offspring. Participants were randomized to receive CPP or to a nonintervention control group. A comparison group of non-depressed mothers (NC) was also created by directly contacting families. Measures utilized include the Diagnostic Interview Schedule, Version III, Revised (DIS-III-R), the Beck Depression Inventory (BDI), the BDI-Second Edition (BDI-II), the Strange Situation, and the Teacher Checklist of Peer Relationships (TCPR). Results indicate that children who received CPP were more likely to show evidence of secure attachments at postintervention, which in turn was associated with more positive peer relationships at age 9. Limitations include concerns about generalizability to children and mothers of different racial/ethnic backgrounds or lower socioeconomic strata, reliance on a single measure of peer relationships, and high attrition rates at the follow-up time point.

Length of controlled postintervention follow-up: Approximately 7.5–8 years.