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Parents as Teachers

Scientific Rating:
3
Promising Research Evidence
See scale of 1-5
Child Welfare Relevance Level:
Medium

See descriptions of 3 levels

Brief Description

The information in this program outline is provided by the program representative and edited by the CEBC staff. The Parents as Teachers program has been rated by the CEBC in the area of: Home Visiting for Child Well-Being.

Parents as Teachers - is an early childhood parent education, family support, and school readiness home visiting model based on the premise that "all children will learn, grow, and develop to realize their full potential." Based on theories of human ecology, empowerment, self-efficacy, and developmental parenting. Parents as Teachers involves the training and certification of parent educators who work with families of using a comprehensive research-based and evidence-informed curriculum. Parent educators work with parents to strengthen protective factors and ensure that young children are healthy, safe, and ready to learn.

The four goals of Parents as Teachers are:

  • Increase parent knowledge of early childhood development and improve parenting practices
  • Provide early detection of developmental delays and health issues
  • Prevent child abuse and neglect
  • Increase children's school readiness and school success

Essential Components

Personal Visits: Home visitation is the key component of the Parents as Teachers model, with personal visits of approximately 60 minutes delivered weekly, every 2 weeks, or monthly, depending on family needs. Parent educators share research-based information and use evidence-based practices by partnering, facilitating, and reflecting with families. Parent educators use the Parent as Teachers curriculum in culturally sensitive ways to deliver services that emphasize parent-child interaction, development-centered parenting, and family well-being.

  • Parent-child interaction focuses on promoting positive parenting behaviors and child development through parent-child activities.
  • Development-centered parenting focuses on the link between child development and parenting on the key developmental topics (i.e., attachment, discipline, health, nutrition, safety, sleep, transitions/routines, healthy births).
  • Family well-being includes a focus on family strengths, capabilities, skills, and the building of protective factors.

Screenings: Annual child health, hearing, vision, and developmental screenings, beginning within 90 days of enrollment, are a component of the model. Child screenings:

  • Assess developmental progress regarding cognitive, language, social-emotional, and motor skills
  • Screen for delays or problems in vision/hearing/health
  • Provide information about child’s health and developmental progress through on-going tracking of developmental milestones.

Group Connections: Another component of the Parents as Teachers model is monthly or more frequent group connections, which parents can attend with their child to obtain information and social support and share experiences with their peers. Group connections formats include family activities, presentations, community events, parent cafes, and ongoing groups.

Resource Network: Additionally, Parents as Teachers affiliates ongoing relationships with institutions and community organizations that serve families. Parent educators help families identify needs, set goals, connect with appropriate resources, and overcome barriers to accessing services.


Child Component

Parents as Teachers was designed with a child component that addresses the following presenting problems and symptoms:

  • None specifically, the parent educator may find some in the screenings and will do activities with the child based on the screening results (e.g., developmental delays, health issues, etc.)

Age range: 0 – 5

Developmental Delays:

This program was not developed for children with developmental delays, and has not been tested for children with developmental delays.

Parent / Caregiver Component

Parents as Teachers was designed with a parent/caregiver component that addresses the following presenting problems and symptoms:

  • Pregnant or parent of a child five years old or younger in possible high risk environments (e.g., teen parents, low income, parental low educational attainment, single-parent household, etc.)

Group Format

Parents as Teachers was designed to be conducted in a group setting, and has been tested for use in a group setting.

Recommended group size:

There are no set recommendations of the group size. Group meeting is one of our 4 main model components. However, the program was designed so that the personal visits are held in conjunction with group meetings.

Testing References:

Constantino, J. N., Hashemi, N., Solis, E., Alon, T., Haley, S., McClure, S., ...Carlson, V. K. (2001). Supplementation of urban home visitation with a series of group meetings for parents and infants: Results of a "real-world" randomized, controlled trial. Child Abuse and Neglect, 25, 1571-1581.

Delivery Settings

This program is typically conducted in a(n):

  • Adoptive Home
  • Birth Family Home
  • Child Care Center
  • Community Agency
  • Foster Home
  • Outpatient Clinic
  • School

Homework

Parents as Teachers includes a homework component:

There are visit-specific parent-child follow-up activities in the curriculum for the parent educators to choose from. Parent educators introduce a follow-up activity at the end of their visits, and encourage parents to engage in it before the next personal visit.

Languages

Parents as Teachers has materials available in languages other than English:

French, German, Mandarin, Maori, some Native American languages, Spanish

For information on which materials are available in these languages, please check on the program's website or contact the program representative (contact information is listed at the bottom of this page).

Resources Needed to Run Program

The typical resources for implementing the program are:

At a minimum, one personnel serving the dual role as a parent educator and a supervisor is needed to start a program. Training and one set of curriculum are required per parent educator. Parent educators and supervisors also require access to:

  • Office space with a telephone, fax, computer with Internet access and copier
  • Secure/locked storage for files, books, toys and other materials needed for personal visits and group meetings
  • A meeting space for both staff and families as well as a play area.

Information on how to start and implement a program available at www.parentsasteachers.org through the following path of links: About Us – What is Parents as Teachers – About Born to Learn Programs.

Minimum Provider Qualifications

Successful completion of the Born to Learn Institute. Supervisors attend at least the first 2 days of the Institute, and ideally, all 5 days. Follow-up Institute is available face-to-face or on-line.

The intervention requires annual recertifications of parent educators and supervisors. For parent educators, 15 hours of continuing education is required the first year, and 10 hours thereafter. For supervisors, 10 hours per year of continuing education is required. Parent educators typically have a bachelor's degree or beyond in early childhood education or a related field with supervised experience working in the early childhood field.

Education and Training Resources

There is a manual that describes how to implement this program, and there is training available for this program.

Training Contact:
  • Sue Sheehan, Senior Director of Core Training and Program Support
    Parents as Teachers National Center
    www.parentsasteachers.org
    phone: (866) 728-4968 x242
Training is obtained:

Call or register online at www.parentsasteachers.org through the following path of links: About Us – What is Parents as Teachers – About Born to Learn Programs. Born to Learn Institute trainings are offered throughout the United States and on-site by special arrangement for groups of 12 or more.

Number of days/hours:

5-day face-to-face training + follow-up, which can be taken on-line for Prenatal to 3 years of age certification. Additional 2-day training to obtain 3 years of age to Kindergarten entry certification. More information can be obtained at www.parentsasteachers.org through the following path of links: About Us - What is Parents as Teachers - About Born to Learn Programs.

Relevant Published, Peer-Reviewed Research

This program is rated a "3 - Promising Research Evidence" on the Scientific Rating Scale based on the published, peer-reviewed research available. The practice must have at least one study utilizing some form of control (e.g., untreated group, placebo group, matched wait list study) establishing the practice's benefit over the placebo, or found it to be comparable to or better than an appropriate comparison practice. Please see the Scientific Rating Scale for more information.

Child Welfare Outcomes: Safety and Child/Family Well-Being

Show relevant research...

Pfannenstiel, J. C., & Seltzer, D. A. (1989). New Parents as Teachers: Evaluation of an early parent education program.

Type of Study: Non-randomized comparison group
Number of Participants: 75 intervention, 69 comparison

Population:

  • Age range — 3 years
  • Race/Ethnicity — Not Specified
  • Gender — Not Specified
  • Status — Families volunteering for the NPAT program and a comparison group drawn from the surrounding community.

Location / Institution: Missouri

Summary: (To include comparison groups, outcomes, measures, notable limitations)
The study compared scores on measures of cognitive and social ability for children whose parents had participated in the New Parents as Teachers (NPAT) demonstration program with a comparison group from the same community. Cognitive and language development was assessed with the Kaufman Assessment Battery for Children (KABC) and the Preschool Language Scale (PLS). Social development was assessed with the Battelle Developmental Inventory (BDI). The researchers also measured parent knowledge concerning importance of physical stimuli, intellectual development, lack of discipline knowledge, knowledge of child development for children 3 and younger and knowledge of hearing and motor development. Children in the NPAT group scored higher on all measures of development, except for the sequential processing scale of the KABC. Parents in the NPAT group also scored as more knowledgeable, except on measures of knowledge of intellectual development and hearing/motor development. Limitation included self-selection by NPAT parents and significantly older and more educated mothers on average in the NPAT group.

Length of post-intervention follow-up: None

Pfannenstiel, J. C., Seitz, V., & Zigler, E. (2002). Promoting school readiness: The role of the Parents as Teachers program. NHSA Dialog, 6(1), 71-86.

Type of Study: Non-randomized comparison group
Number of Participants: 2,375 children

Population:

  • Age range — Entering kindergarten
  • Race/Ethnicity — 83% non-minority
  • Gender — Not Specified
  • Status — Families with children entering public school

Location / Institution: Missouri

Summary: (To include comparison groups, outcomes, measures, notable limitations)
A panel of educators and specialists developed the School Entry Profile to measure which measures symbolic development, communication, working with others, mathematical/physical knowledge, learning to learn, physical development, and conventional knowledge, as rated by teachers. Parents were given the Parent/Guardian Survey, which measures health issues, preschool attendance, and home literacy activities. Families who had received the PAT program were compared on these measures to a group who had not. Results showed that parents in the PAT program reported reading to their children more often and were more likely to enroll them in a preschool program. Statistical analysis also indicated direct effects of the program on school readiness, suggesting that parenting practices had changed. Finally, impoverished children whose families received PAT and who attended preschool had readiness scores equivalent to those of children from non-impoverished homes.

Length of post-intervention follow-up: 2 to 3 years.

Wagner, M., Spiker, D., & Linn, M. I. (2002). The effectiveness of the Parents as Teachers program with low-income parents and children. Topics in Early Childhood Special Education, 22(2), 67-81.

Type of Study: Randomized controlled trial
Number of Participants: 665

Population:

  • Age range — 0 to 3 years
  • Race/Ethnicity — Mother’s ethnicity: 29.4 % White, 58.2% African American, 12.4% Hispanic/Asian/Other
  • Gender — Not Specified
  • Status — Families in Parents as Teachers (PAT)

Location / Institution: Programs serving a large proportion of low-income families. Large urban PAT programs.

Summary: (To include comparison groups, outcomes, measures, notable limitations)
Sites for the study were chosen by the researchers and PAT National Center staff. Programs were required to be at least 2 years old, serve at least 100 new families annually, serve a high proportion of low-income families and offer home visits at least monthly. Families were recruited through community services and agreed to be randomly assigned to receive the PAT program or to a comparison group. Parents were assessed at children’s first and second birthdays. Children were assessed at their second birthday only. Parents were assessed on their knowledge and attitudes using interview items drawn from the Knowledge of Infant Development Inventory, the Parenting Sense of Competence Scale, and the Child Maltreatment Precursor Scale. Home environment and parenting behaviors during observation were measured with the Home Observation and Measurement of Environment (HOME) Inventory. Study specific questions were also used in parental interviews to assess language, literacy and numeracy promoting behaviors, such as reading to children and counting. Mother-child interactions were observed during the Nursing Child Assessment Satellite Training. Parent-rated child social, physical and cognitive development were measured using the Developmental Profile II. Finally, children’s pro-social behavior was measured with the Adaptive Social Behavior Inventory. Lower scores on parent knowledge, attitude toward parenting and parenting behaviors were noted for lower-income families. Few measures were affected by participation in the PAT program. These included higher self-reported happiness when caring for the child, greater acceptance of child behavior (2nd year) among moderate-income parents, and a greater tendency to read aloud or tell stories to the child among low-income parents. There was also a moderate effect on pro-social behavior among low-income children. The authors note that the generally low level of effects for the PAT program may be partly due to the fact that a high drop out rate for the sample required them to terminate assessment at 2 years, rather than the 3 years for which the program is designed.

Length of post-intervention follow-up: None

Albritton, S., Klotz, J., & Roberson, T. (2004). The effects of participating in a Parents as Teachers Program on parental involvement in the learning process at school and in the home. E-Journal of Teaching & Learning in Diverse Settings, 1(2), 189-208.

Type of Study: Non-randomized comparison group
Number of Participants: 80 families

Population:

  • Age range — Pre-kindergarten to kindergarten
  • Race/Ethnicity — 96.2% African American, 1.3% Caucasian, 2.5% No response
  • Gender — Not Specified
  • Status — Families with children enrolled in public or private pre-kindergarten or kindergarten classes

Location / Institution: Mississippi

Summary: (To include comparison groups, outcomes, measures, notable limitations)
Parents of children in the Parents as Teachers (PAT) group and comparison group were given the Parent or Caregiver survey, constructed for this study. The survey had four sections comprised of questions about parental school involvement, level of engagement with learning activities at home, preschool experiences and involvement with programs such as Early Head Start, and a section with demographic questions. Analysis indicated that PAT parents were more involved in school activities and engaged in 6 out of 12 home learning activities more often than the comparison group. These items measures literacy-related activities.

Length of post-intervention follow-up: 1 to 3 years

Zigler, E., Pfannenstiel, J., & Seitz, V. (2008). The Parents as Teachers program and school success: A replication and extension. Journal of Primary Prevention, 29, 103-120.

Type of Study: Non-randomized comparison group
Number of Participants: 5,721 kindergarten children

Population:

  • Age range — Assessed in third grade
  • Race/Ethnicity — 15% minority
  • Gender — Not Specified
  • Status — Public school students

Location / Institution: Missouri

Summary: (To include comparison groups, outcomes, measures, notable limitations)
Students whose families had undergone the Parents as Teachers (PAT) program were compared to those who had not. Children were assessed on the Student Observation Record, which measures symbolic development, communication, working with others, mathematical/physical knowledge, learning to learn, physical development, and conventional knowledge. Parents filled out a Parent/Guardian Survey, which had questions about health issues, preschool attendance and home literacy activities. Children also received the Missouri Assessment Program (MAP) Communication Arts Assessment, a state-mandated test. Parents in the PAT program read to their children more often and were more likely to enroll them in preschool, which are predictors of school readiness. Statistical analysis also showed direct effects of PAT participation on school readiness, through better parenting practices. Length of PAT participation also predicted third grade achievement. Children of low-income families who received PAT and also attended a pre-school program showed achievement levels approaching those of non-impoverished families who did not attend preschool.

Length of post-intervention follow-up: 4 to 5 years

Drotar, D., Robinson, J., Jeavons, I., & Kirchner, H. L. (2009). A randomized,controlled evaluation of early intervention: the Born to Learn curriculum. Child: Care, Health & Development. 35(5), 643-649.

Type of Study: Randomized controlled trial, with blocks stratified by socio-economic status (SES)
Number of Participants: 459

Population:

  • Age range — 0 to 9 months of age at recruitment
  • Race/Ethnicity — Child's race/ethnicity: 65.8 % White, 28.8% African American, 5.4% Hispanic/Asian/Other
  • Gender — Not Specified
  • Status — Families were recruited by announcements in local papers and outreach in pediatric clinics, day care practices and health fairs.

Location / Institution: Cleveland, Ohio

Summary: (To include comparison groups, outcomes, measures, notable limitations)
Based on random assignment, 227 families of infants received the Born To Learn (BTL) curriculum conducted in monthly home visits, and 232 families received general child development education only. Children were assessed at 12, 18, 24 and 36 months of age using the following measures: Bayley Scale of Mental Development, Second Edition (BSMD) at 12 and 24 months, the Bayley Behavioural Rating Scale (BBRS) and mastery motivation at 12, 24 and 36 months, the Q-Sort measure of Security of Attachment at 18 months, the Child Behaviour Rating Scale (CBRS) at 24 months, the Kaufman Assessment Battery (KAB), the Bracken Basic Concept Scale - Revised, the Test of Early Reading Ability-2 (TERA-2), and the Social Skills Rating System (SSRS) at 36 months. Post-randomization dropout or attrition over 3 years was n = 117 (25.5%) and was comparable across the two groups. The BTL curriculum resulted in higher mastery motivation (task competence) at 36 months (P < 0.05) and greater effects for children from low (P < 0.01) versus high socio-economic status on mastery motivation and cognitive development at 24 months. No effects were found on a wide range of other developmental outcomes. Limitations include suboptimal visit frequency for the BTL group and a relatively high level of attrition.

Length of post-intervention follow-up: Not Specified

References

Show references...

Child Welfare League of America. (2005). Parenting. Research to Practice. Washington D.C., Retrieved March 14, 2008 from the World Wide Web: www.cwla.org/programs/r2p/rrnews0502.pdf

Parents as Teachers National Center. (2008). Born to Learn curriculum 3 years to kindergarten entry. St. Louis, MO: PATNC.

Shaklee, H., Hardin, J., & Demarest, D. (2007). Parents as Teachers Born to Learn™ Curricula Support Emergent Literacy. Boise, ID: University of Idaho Extension.

Wagner, M. M., & Clayton, S. (1999). The Parents as Teachers Program: Results from two demonstrations. The Future of Children, 9(1), 91-115.

Winter, M., & McDonald, D. (1997). Parents as Teachers: Investing in good beginnings for children. In Primary prevention works. G. Albee and T. Gullotta, eds. Thousand Oaks, CA: Sage Publications, pp. 119–45.

Winter, M., & Rouse, J. (1990). Fostering Intergenerational Literacy: The Missouri Parents as Teachers Program. Reading Teacher, 43(6) 382-86.

Contact Information

Name: Cheryle Dyle-Palmer, M.A.
Title: Chief Operating Officer and Executive Vice-President
Agency/Affiliation: Parents as Teachers National Center
Website: www.parentsasteachers.org
Email:
Phone: (866) 728-4968
Fax: (314) 432-8963

Date Reviewed: February 2009 (originally reviewed in May 2008)