Smith, K. E., Landry, S. H., & Swank, P. R. (2005). The influence of decreased parental resources on the efficacy of a responsive parenting intervention. Journal of Consulting and Clinical Psychology, 73(4), 711–720. https://doi.org/10.1037/0022-006X.73.4.711

Type of Study: Randomized controlled trial
Number of Participants: 264

Population:

• Age — Caregivers: Mean=27.0–27.9 years; Children: 6–10 months
• Race/Ethnicity — Caregivers: 35% Caucasian, 33% African American, 29% Hispanic, and 3% Other; Children: Not specified
• Gender — Caregivers: 100% Female; Children: 52% Female and 48% Male
• Status — Participants were infants and mothers from predominantly lower middle to low socioeconomic status.

Location/Institution: Houston-Galveston area

Summary: (To include basic study design, measures, results, and notable limitations)
The purpose of the study was to examine a responsive parenting intervention for socially disadvantaged mothers [now called Play and Learning Strategies - Infant Program (PALS I)] compared to preintervention parenting resources. Both of these conditions were examined as moderators of behavior change in participating families. Participants were randomly assigned to a group that only received the intervention or a control group that only received developmental information. Measures utilized include the Concepts of Development Questionnaire, the Parenting Sense of Competence Scale, the Symptom Checklist 90—Revised, the Depression Scale from the Center for Epidemiological Studies, and the Personal Relationships Inventory. Results indicate that mothers in the intervention only group with limited internal resources particularly higher levels of anger/hostility, experienced more positive change for the broadest range of responsive behaviors compared to those in the information-only control group. In addition, those in the intervention group experienced more change in provision of rich language input. Limitations include lack of generalizability due to socioeconomic status, ethnicity, and gender.

Length of controlled postintervention follow-up: 3 months.

Guttentag, C. L., Pedrosa-Josic, C., Landry, S. H., Smith, K. E., & Swank, P. R. (2006). Individual variability in parenting profiles and predictors of change: Effects of an intervention with disadvantaged mothers. Journal of Applied Developmental Psychology, 27(4), 349–369. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.appdev.2006.04.005

Type of Study: Randomized controlled trial
Number of Participants: 264

Population:

• Age — Caregivers: Mean=27.0–27.9 years; Children: 6–10 months
• Race/Ethnicity — 35% Caucasian, 33% African American, 29% Hispanic, and 3% Other
• Gender — 100% Female
• Status — Participants were mothers and infants with very low birth rate or born at term from predominantly lower middle to low socioeconomic status.

Location/Institution: Houston-Galveston area

Summary: (To include basic study design, measures, results, and notable limitations)
The study used the same sample as Smith et al. (2005). The purpose of the study was to address the need for more information about individual differences in mothers' pre-existing behaviors by examining variability within a group of mothers who were randomly assigned to either a parenting intervention condition (Play and Learning Strategies [PALS]) [now called Play and Learning Strategies - Infant Program (PALS I)] or to a comparison condition in which infants' development was screened across multiple areas and reported to mothers. Measures utilized include the Concepts of Development Questionnaire (CODQ), the Symptom Checklist 90-Revised (SCL-90-R), the Personal Relationships Inventory, and the Hollingshead Four-Factor Index. Results indicate that mothers randomly assigned to PALS were more likely than comparison mothers to transition from weaker to stronger profile groups, e.g., 17% of the PALS group who were in the lowest profile group at pre-intervention remained in the lowest profile group at post-intervention versus 60% of comparison group mothers. Social support predicted positive change among intervention mothers. Limitations include lack of information on how mothers used their social support networks and lack of generalizability to fathers and higher SES families.

Length of controlled postintervention follow-up: 3 months.

Landry, S. H., Smith, K. E., & Swank, P. R. (2006). Responsive parenting: Establishing early foundations for social, communication, and independent problem-solving skills. Developmental Psychology, 42(4), 627–642. https://doi.org/10.1037/0012-1649.42.4.627

Type of Study: Randomized controlled trial
Number of Participants: 264

Population:

• Age — Caregivers: Mean=27.0–27.9 years; Children: 6–10 months
• Race/Ethnicity — 35% Caucasian, 33% African American, 29% Hispanic, and 3% Other
• Gender — 100% Female
• Status — Participants were mothers and their infants with very low birth rate or born at term from predominantly lower middle to low socioeconomic status.

Location/Institution: Houston-Galveston area

Summary: (To include basic study design, measures, results, and notable limitations)
The study used the same sample as Smith et al. (2005). The purpose of the study was to examine mothers whose infants varied in early biological characteristics. Participants were randomized to Play and Learning Strategies (PALS) [now called Play and Learning Strategies - Infant Program (PALS I)] or a developmental feedback comparison group to determine whether learning responsive behaviors would facilitate infant development. Measures utilized include videotaping of the participants to observe maternal behaviors. Results indicate that the PALS group showed greater increases across multiple responsiveness behaviors observed in four assessments conducted across 6–13 months of age versus comparison mothers; changes in emotionally supportive behaviors were strongest for target mothers of infants born at very low birth weight (VLBW). Furthermore, increased maternal responsiveness facilitated greater growth in target infants’ social, emotional, communication, and cognitive competence, supporting a causal role for responsiveness on infant development. Although benefits were generally comparable across risk groups, aspects of social and emotional skills showed greater change for those born at VLBW. Limitations include differential attrition rates by ethnicity and lack of generalizability due to socioeconomic status and gender.

Length of controlled postintervention follow-up: 3 months.

Baggett, K., Davis, B., Feil, E., Sheeber, L., Landry, S., Leve, C., & Johnson, U. (2017). A randomized controlled trial examination of a remote parenting intervention: Engagement and effects on parenting behavior and child abuse potential. Child Maltreatment, 22(4), 315–323. https://doi.org/10.1177/1077559517712000

Type of Study: Randomized controlled trial
Number of Participants: 159 (mother-infant dyads)

Population:

• Age — Children: 3.5 months–7.5 months; Parents: Not specified
• Race/Ethnicity — Not specified
• Gender — Children: Not specified; Parents: 100% Female
• Status — Participants were mother-infant dyads at high risk for child maltreatment due to multiple stressors associated with poverty.

Location/Institution: A Midwestern metropolitan area and rural and suburban areas in the Pacific Northwest

Summary: (To include basic study design, measures, results, and notable limitations)
The purpose of the study was to examine engagement and outcomes among mothers at heightened risk for child abuse, who were enrolled in a randomized controlled intent-to-treat trial of an internet adaptation of an evidence-based infant parenting intervention. Participants were randomized to either an internet-adapted and bilingual version of Play and Learning Strategies - Infant Program (PALS I) called e-PALS Baby-Net or to a control group that received developmental awareness skills (DAS). Measures utilized include the Conflict Tactics Scale, Concepts of Development Questionnaire, Panic Disorder Severity Scale (PDSS), Personal Relationship Inventory, Pearlin Mastery Scale, Child Abuse Potential Inventory (CAPI), and Parent–Child Interaction Scales. Results indicate that engagement patterns were similar between higher and lower risk groups. Moreover, an intervention dose by condition effect was found for increased positive parent behavior and reduced child abuse potential. Limitations include lack of follow-up, lack of clear demographic data, concerns over generalizability due to socioeconomic status, and concerns over effective delivery of the intervention due to issues related to digital literacy for participants.

Length of controlled postintervention follow-up: None.

Feil, E. G., Baggett, K., Davis, B., Landry, S., Sheeber, L., Leve, C., & Johnson, U. (2020). Randomized control trial of an internet-based parenting intervention for mothers of infants. Early Childhood Research Quarterly, 50(Part 1), 36–44. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.ecresq.2018.11.003

Type of Study: Randomized controlled trial
Number of Participants: 159 (mother-infant dyads)

Population:

• Age — Children: Mean=4.41 months; Parents: Mean=27.23 years
• Race/Ethnicity — Children: 51% Caucasian, 39% Hispanic, and 31% Non-Caucasian; Parents: 57% Caucasian, 43% Hispanic, and 32% Non-Caucasian
• Gender — Children: 56% Female; Parents: 100% Female
• Status — Participants were infants and mothers from low-income environments.

Location/Institution: Kansas City, Kansas and Missouri metropolitan area, and rural and suburban Oregon

Summary: (To include basic study design, measures, results, and notable limitations)
The purpose of the study was to evaluate the impact of the Internet-adaptation of the Play and Learning Strategies (PALS) [now called Play and Learning Strategies - Infant Program (PALS I)] program, a preventive intervention program that strengthens effective parenting practices that promote early language, cognitive, and social development. Participants were randomized to either (a) an Internet-facilitated PALS parenting intervention or (b) an Internet-facilitated attention control condition. Measures utilized include Landry Parent–Child Interaction Scales, study developed questionnaires, and direct observations of maternal behavior with her infant. Results indicate that Internet-facilitated PALS parenting intervention group demonstrated significantly greater increases in parenting knowledge and observed language-supportive parenting behaviors with a correlated positive change in infant language behaviors. Effects were pronounced when intervention participants received a greater dosage of the intervention. Finally results suggest that the Internet-based translation of the PALS program is effective as a remotely delivered intervention for economically disadvantaged families to strengthen early parenting behaviors that promote infant social communication and child language development. Limitations include lack of follow-up, concerns over generalizability due to socioeconomic status, and use of professional research-based coaching that were not traditionally trained in internet-based PALS.

Length of controlled postintervention follow-up: None.