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Housing and Supportive Housing Interventions

Scientific Ratings in this Topic
  • 1 Well-Supported by Research Evidence
  • 2 Supported by Research Evidence
  • 3 Promising Research Evidence
  • 4 Evidence Fails to Demonstrate Effect
  • 5 Concerning Practice
  • NR Not able to be Rated

Topic Areas

Topic Areas

Definition

Housing and Supportive Housing Interventions are defined by the CEBC as interventions that are targeted at, or can be used by, children, youth, and families to address housing instability, insecurity, and affordability issues, and to prevent and/or respond to homelessness. These can be interventions for children, youth, and families in general, or specifically targeted at families and youth involved with child welfare services, including youth aging out of foster care services.

Housing is considered a basic necessity—a prerequisite for meeting a person’s physiological and psychological needs. Unmet housing needs can have a profound effect on a person’s physical and mental health outcomes. In 2023, the U.S. Department of Housing and Urban Development (HUD) estimated that over 650,000 people were experiencing homelessness in the United States, which is the highest number on record since 2007. This represents a 12% increase from 2020. California accounted for almost 30% of the total homeless population in 2023.

Homelessness can be defined in different ways, but the 1987 Stewart B. McKinney Homeless Assistance Act defined it as “lacking a regular nighttime residence or having a primary nighttime residence that is a temporary shelter or other place not designed for sleeping.” Housing instability is the limited or uncertain availability of (or access to) stable, safe, adequate, and affordable housing.

Households are considered to be cost burdened if they spend more than 30 percent of their income on housing and severely cost burdened if they spend more than 50 percent of their income on housing. Cost-burdened households have little left over each month to spend on other necessities such as food, clothing, utilities, and health care.  Black and Hispanic households are almost twice as likely as White households to be cost burdened.

Adults and children in families make up about 30 percent of the homeless population. A typical homeless family is comprised of a single mother with her two young children. Lack of affordable housing is a primary cause of homelessness in families since often one or both parents are working but not making a livable wage. Additionally, events such as illness, unemployment, accidents, and acts of violence limit the ability to secure stable and affordable housing. Finally, youth who have experienced foster care are at a high risk of becoming homeless, with some studies estimating that 31–46% of them will experience homelessness by age 26.

  • Target population: Parents/caregivers, families, children, adolescents, and/or young adults (age <25)
  • Services/types that fit: Rental subsidies and assistance, eviction prevention, shelters (congregate and otherwise), supportive housing, bridge housing, rapid rehousing, affordable housing programs, tax credits, vouchers, housing navigation, outreach, advocacy, case management, intensive wraparound services, and/or care coordination.
  • Delivered by: Federal, state, and local agencies; social workers, counselors, behavioral health professionals, child welfare workers, trained paraprofessionals, peer partners, parent partners, public health professionals, medical providers, persons with lived experience
  • In order to be included: The overall focus of the program must be housing-related and have a primary goal of preventing and/or reducing housing instability and/or homelessness.
  • In order to be rated: There must be research evidence (as specified by the Scientific Rating Scale) that examines housing related outcomes, such as decreases in housing instability or homelessness, improvements in housing cost burden, and reductions in overcrowding, doubling up, or couch surfing.

Definition

Housing and Supportive Housing Interventions are defined by the CEBC as interventions that are targeted at, or can be used by, children, youth, and families to address housing instability, insecurity, and affordability issues, and to prevent and/or respond to homelessness. These can be interventions for children, youth, and families in general, or specifically targeted at families and youth involved with child welfare services, including youth aging out of foster care services.

Housing is considered a basic necessity—a prerequisite for meeting a person’s physiological and psychological needs. Unmet housing needs can have a profound effect on a person’s physical and mental health outcomes. In 2023, the U.S. Department of Housing and Urban Development (HUD) estimated that over 650,000 people were experiencing homelessness in the United States, which is the highest number on record since 2007. This represents a 12% increase from 2020. California accounted for almost 30% of the total homeless population in 2023.

Homelessness can be defined in different ways, but the 1987 Stewart B. McKinney Homeless Assistance Act defined it as “lacking a regular nighttime residence or having a primary nighttime residence that is a temporary shelter or other place not designed for sleeping.” Housing instability is the limited or uncertain availability of (or access to) stable, safe, adequate, and affordable housing.

Households are considered to be cost burdened if they spend more than 30 percent of their income on housing and severely cost burdened if they spend more than 50 percent of their income on housing. Cost-burdened households have little left over each month to spend on other necessities such as food, clothing, utilities, and health care.  Black and Hispanic households are almost twice as likely as White households to be cost burdened.

Adults and children in families make up about 30 percent of the homeless population. A typical homeless family is comprised of a single mother with her two young children. Lack of affordable housing is a primary cause of homelessness in families since often one or both parents are working but not making a livable wage. Additionally, events such as illness, unemployment, accidents, and acts of violence limit the ability to secure stable and affordable housing. Finally, youth who have experienced foster care are at a high risk of becoming homeless, with some studies estimating that 31–46% of them will experience homelessness by age 26.

  • Target population: Parents/caregivers, families, children, adolescents, and/or young adults (age <25)
  • Services/types that fit: Rental subsidies and assistance, eviction prevention, shelters (congregate and otherwise), supportive housing, bridge housing, rapid rehousing, affordable housing programs, tax credits, vouchers, housing navigation, outreach, advocacy, case management, intensive wraparound services, and/or care coordination.
  • Delivered by: Federal, state, and local agencies; social workers, counselors, behavioral health professionals, child welfare workers, trained paraprofessionals, peer partners, parent partners, public health professionals, medical providers, persons with lived experience
  • In order to be included: The overall focus of the program must be housing-related and have a primary goal of preventing and/or reducing housing instability and/or homelessness.
  • In order to be rated: There must be research evidence (as specified by the Scientific Rating Scale) that examines housing related outcomes, such as decreases in housing instability or homelessness, improvements in housing cost burden, and reductions in overcrowding, doubling up, or couch surfing.

Topic Expert

The Housing and Supportive Housing Interventions topic area was added in 2026. Patrick Fowler, PhD, was the topic expert and was involved in identifying and rating any of the programs with an original load date in 2026 (as found on the bottom of the program's page on the CEBC) or others loaded earlier and added to this topic area when it launched.

Topic Expert

The Housing and Supportive Housing Interventions topic area was added in 2026. Patrick Fowler, PhD, was the topic expert and was involved in identifying and rating any of the programs with an original load date in 2026 (as found on the bottom of the program's page on the CEBC) or others loaded earlier and added to this topic area when it launched.

Programs

Critical Time Intervention

Critical Time Intervention (CTI) is a time-limited practice that is designed to mobilize support for society’s most vulnerable individuals during periods of transition. It facilitates community integration and continuity of care by ensuring that a person has enduring ties to their community and support systems during these critical periods. CTI has been applied with veterans, people with mental illness, people who have been homeless or in prison, and many other groups.

Core Components:

  • Addresses a period of transition
  • Time-limited
  • Phased approach
  • Focused
  • Decreasing intensity over time
  • Community-based
  • No early discharge
  • Small caseloads
  • Harm reduction approach
  • Weekly team supervision
  • Regular full caseload review

Phases of CTI:

    • Pre-CTI
      • Develop a trusting relationship with client.
    • Phase 1: Transition
      • Provide support & begin to connect client to people and agencies that will assume the primary role of support:
        • Make home visits
        • Engage in collaborative assessments
        • Meet with existing supports
        • Introduce client to new supports
        • Give support and advice to client and caregivers
    • Phase 2: Try-Out
      • Monitor and strengthen support network and client’s skills.
        • Observe operation of support network
        • Mediate conflicts between client and caregivers
        • Help modify network as necessary
        • Encourage client to take more responsibility
    • Phase 3: Transfer of Care
      • Terminate CTI services with support network safely in place.
        • Step back to ensure that supports can function independently
        • Develop and begin to set in motion plan for long-term goals
        • Hold meeting with client and supports to mark final transfer of care
        • Meet with client for last time to review progress made

Scientific Rating 3

Family Unification Program

Public housing agencies (PHAs) administer FUP in partnership with Public Child Welfare Agencies (PCWAs). The PCWA initially determines if the family or youth meets the FUP eligibility requirements, certifies that the family or youth is eligible, and refers those families and youth to the PHA. Once the PCWA makes the referral, the PHA places the FUP applicant on its Housing Choice Voucher (HCV) waiting list and determines whether the family meets HCV program eligibility requirements, including income eligibility. The PHA conducts all other processes relating to voucher issuance and administration. The program does not require PCWAs to provide supportive services for families; however, PCWAs may make them available to families as well. Examples of the skills targeted by these supportive services can include money management skills, job preparation, educational counseling, and proper nutrition and meal preparation.

Scientific Rating 3

LifeSet

LifeSet provides intensive in-home support and guidance to young adults leaving the foster care, juvenile justice, and/or mental health systems, as well as to others who find themselves at this stage in life without the necessary skills and supports to make a successful transition to adulthood. Program success is defined as a young adult’s maintenance of stable and suitable housing, avoidance of negative legal involvement, participation in an educational/vocational program, and development of life skills necessary to become a successful, productive citizen. The program not only assists with young adults who are “aging out” of state custody, but also works with the young person’s family and support systems to ensure a more successful transition.

Scientific Rating 3

Community of Schools and Services Model

The Community of Schools and Services (COSS) Model is an innovative early intervention service-delivery and reform-oriented model for addressing and supporting vulnerable young people and their families. It is designed to reduce disengagement from education and early school leaving and to help where family issues are heading towards a crisis and possible homelessness, as well as other adverse outcomes.

The COSS Model takes a place-based systems approach for maximum efficiency and represents a raft of innovations to realize a more effective early intervention system for addressing vulnerable youth.

The COSS Model consists of four foundations:

  • Community collaboration
  • Early identification
  • The practice framework and early intervention support work with families
  • A robust, embedded longitudinal monitoring and measurement of outcomes

Scientific Rating NR

Eva’s Family Reconnect Toolkit

This service is available to young people who are already homeless (16-24) or at-risk of becoming homeless (14-24), and the services often continue when they move home or move into community housing. For some young people, moving home is not the goal. However, youth moving to housing in the community are more likely to be successful with supportive family involvement. Other core components of the Family Reconnect Toolkit are referrals, advocacy and accompaniment to community agencies and services, including psychiatric and psychological assessments, housing, case management, mentoring, parenting groups, mental health and addiction supports.

“Family” is defined by the youth and family members involved in the program. This may mean the “typical” family constellation of mother, father, and siblings, but it can also include a grandparent, aunt/uncle, cousin, neighbor, and/or family friend. Family and individual counselling is offered for youth and their families and may focus on any of the following issues as they relate to the root causes of their struggles: family breakdown, youth and parent conflict, communication difficulties, sibling relationships, drug and alcohol use, and life and parenting skills.

The Family Intervention Counsellors work with families to navigate the system and access needed services. The Counsellors not only provide referrals for the youth, but for other family members as well. For example, if a family member has severe depression that is influencing their relationship with the youth, the counsellor may refer them to appropriate services.

Logic model: family.reconnect.toolkit.logic.model.pdf

Scientific Rating NR

Foster Youth to Independence Initiative

Public housing agencies (PHAs) administer FYI in partnership with Public Child Welfare Agencies (PCWAs). The PCWA initially determines if the youth/young adult meets the FYI eligibility requirements, certifies that they are eligible, and refers them to the PHA. Once the PCWA makes the referral, the PHA places the FYI applicant on its Housing Choice Voucher (HCV) waiting list and determines whether they meet HCV program eligibility requirements, including income eligibility. The PHA conducts all other processes relating to voucher issuance and administration. In addition to rental assistance, supportive services must be provided to FYI participants by the PCWA for the first 18 months that they participate in the program. Examples of the skills targeted by these services include money management skills, job preparation, educational counseling, and proper nutrition and meal preparation.

FYI vouchers used by participant are limited, by statute, to 36 months of housing assistance. Fostering Stable Housing Opportunities (FSHO) provides an FYI participant an extension of the 36-month time limit for up to an additional 24 months if they meet certain requirements.

Scientific Rating NR

Foyer Model

Foyers are secure communal supported housing for young people aged 16-25 who have experienced homelessness. They are both places to learn and safe places to live with transformative opportunities that develop agency and purpose.

Foyers integrate housing, education, employability training and personal development for young people. Foyer residents are offered opportunities that give them access to learning, prepare them to work, improve their health and wellbeing and develop their leadership potential.

Scientific Rating NR

Housing Outreach Program – Collaborative

HOP-C is a critical time intervention that was developed in response to research outlining the psychosocial challenges faced by youth in the transition out of homelessness. HOP-C involves wraparound supports (e.g., intensive case management, specialized mental health support, and peer workers) that youth can engage with flexibly throughout their time in the project. HOP-C workers also coordinate with other professionals/agencies (e.g., existing case workers, housing workers, employment workers, etc.) to provide individualized support to each youth. Furthermore, peer workers organize and facilitate social outings and drop-ins for youth. The desired outcomes of this program relate to maintaining stable housing, pursuing/maintaining school/employment, improving mental health outcomes and promoting greater well-being and quality of life.

Scientific Rating NR

Pathways to Success

Pathways to Success is an intensive, youth-driven case management model with the long-term goal of preventing homelessness among youth with foster care experience. The model is built around case managers, called Navigators, who are trained in a case management approach called Engaging Youth in a Coach-Like Way. In this approach, Navigators develop a coaching relationship to support youth. Youth direct the intervention by setting goals related to the outcome areas of housing, education, employment, health and well-being, and permanent connections. Meanwhile, Navigators deploy an individualized services array tailored to each youth’s needs, strengths, and goals. In addition to Engaging Youth in a Coach-like Way, Navigators use a variety of tools and resources to support youth in these domains, such as flex funds and referrals to relevant resources.

Scientific Rating NR

Programs

Critical Time Intervention

Critical Time Intervention (CTI) is a time-limited practice that is designed to mobilize support for society’s most vulnerable individuals during periods of transition. It facilitates community integration and continuity of care by ensuring that a person has enduring ties to their community and support systems during these critical periods. CTI has been applied with veterans, people with mental illness, people who have been homeless or in prison, and many other groups.

Core Components:

  • Addresses a period of transition
  • Time-limited
  • Phased approach
  • Focused
  • Decreasing intensity over time
  • Community-based
  • No early discharge
  • Small caseloads
  • Harm reduction approach
  • Weekly team supervision
  • Regular full caseload review

Phases of CTI:

    • Pre-CTI
      • Develop a trusting relationship with client.
    • Phase 1: Transition
      • Provide support & begin to connect client to people and agencies that will assume the primary role of support:
        • Make home visits
        • Engage in collaborative assessments
        • Meet with existing supports
        • Introduce client to new supports
        • Give support and advice to client and caregivers
    • Phase 2: Try-Out
      • Monitor and strengthen support network and client’s skills.
        • Observe operation of support network
        • Mediate conflicts between client and caregivers
        • Help modify network as necessary
        • Encourage client to take more responsibility
    • Phase 3: Transfer of Care
      • Terminate CTI services with support network safely in place.
        • Step back to ensure that supports can function independently
        • Develop and begin to set in motion plan for long-term goals
        • Hold meeting with client and supports to mark final transfer of care
        • Meet with client for last time to review progress made

Scientific Rating 3

Family Unification Program

Public housing agencies (PHAs) administer FUP in partnership with Public Child Welfare Agencies (PCWAs). The PCWA initially determines if the family or youth meets the FUP eligibility requirements, certifies that the family or youth is eligible, and refers those families and youth to the PHA. Once the PCWA makes the referral, the PHA places the FUP applicant on its Housing Choice Voucher (HCV) waiting list and determines whether the family meets HCV program eligibility requirements, including income eligibility. The PHA conducts all other processes relating to voucher issuance and administration. The program does not require PCWAs to provide supportive services for families; however, PCWAs may make them available to families as well. Examples of the skills targeted by these supportive services can include money management skills, job preparation, educational counseling, and proper nutrition and meal preparation.

Scientific Rating 3

LifeSet

LifeSet provides intensive in-home support and guidance to young adults leaving the foster care, juvenile justice, and/or mental health systems, as well as to others who find themselves at this stage in life without the necessary skills and supports to make a successful transition to adulthood. Program success is defined as a young adult’s maintenance of stable and suitable housing, avoidance of negative legal involvement, participation in an educational/vocational program, and development of life skills necessary to become a successful, productive citizen. The program not only assists with young adults who are “aging out” of state custody, but also works with the young person’s family and support systems to ensure a more successful transition.

Scientific Rating 3

Community of Schools and Services Model

The Community of Schools and Services (COSS) Model is an innovative early intervention service-delivery and reform-oriented model for addressing and supporting vulnerable young people and their families. It is designed to reduce disengagement from education and early school leaving and to help where family issues are heading towards a crisis and possible homelessness, as well as other adverse outcomes.

The COSS Model takes a place-based systems approach for maximum efficiency and represents a raft of innovations to realize a more effective early intervention system for addressing vulnerable youth.

The COSS Model consists of four foundations:

  • Community collaboration
  • Early identification
  • The practice framework and early intervention support work with families
  • A robust, embedded longitudinal monitoring and measurement of outcomes

Scientific Rating NR

Eva’s Family Reconnect Toolkit

This service is available to young people who are already homeless (16-24) or at-risk of becoming homeless (14-24), and the services often continue when they move home or move into community housing. For some young people, moving home is not the goal. However, youth moving to housing in the community are more likely to be successful with supportive family involvement. Other core components of the Family Reconnect Toolkit are referrals, advocacy and accompaniment to community agencies and services, including psychiatric and psychological assessments, housing, case management, mentoring, parenting groups, mental health and addiction supports.

“Family” is defined by the youth and family members involved in the program. This may mean the “typical” family constellation of mother, father, and siblings, but it can also include a grandparent, aunt/uncle, cousin, neighbor, and/or family friend. Family and individual counselling is offered for youth and their families and may focus on any of the following issues as they relate to the root causes of their struggles: family breakdown, youth and parent conflict, communication difficulties, sibling relationships, drug and alcohol use, and life and parenting skills.

The Family Intervention Counsellors work with families to navigate the system and access needed services. The Counsellors not only provide referrals for the youth, but for other family members as well. For example, if a family member has severe depression that is influencing their relationship with the youth, the counsellor may refer them to appropriate services.

Logic model: family.reconnect.toolkit.logic.model.pdf

Scientific Rating NR

Foster Youth to Independence Initiative

Public housing agencies (PHAs) administer FYI in partnership with Public Child Welfare Agencies (PCWAs). The PCWA initially determines if the youth/young adult meets the FYI eligibility requirements, certifies that they are eligible, and refers them to the PHA. Once the PCWA makes the referral, the PHA places the FYI applicant on its Housing Choice Voucher (HCV) waiting list and determines whether they meet HCV program eligibility requirements, including income eligibility. The PHA conducts all other processes relating to voucher issuance and administration. In addition to rental assistance, supportive services must be provided to FYI participants by the PCWA for the first 18 months that they participate in the program. Examples of the skills targeted by these services include money management skills, job preparation, educational counseling, and proper nutrition and meal preparation.

FYI vouchers used by participant are limited, by statute, to 36 months of housing assistance. Fostering Stable Housing Opportunities (FSHO) provides an FYI participant an extension of the 36-month time limit for up to an additional 24 months if they meet certain requirements.

Scientific Rating NR

Foyer Model

Foyers are secure communal supported housing for young people aged 16-25 who have experienced homelessness. They are both places to learn and safe places to live with transformative opportunities that develop agency and purpose.

Foyers integrate housing, education, employability training and personal development for young people. Foyer residents are offered opportunities that give them access to learning, prepare them to work, improve their health and wellbeing and develop their leadership potential.

Scientific Rating NR

Housing Outreach Program – Collaborative

HOP-C is a critical time intervention that was developed in response to research outlining the psychosocial challenges faced by youth in the transition out of homelessness. HOP-C involves wraparound supports (e.g., intensive case management, specialized mental health support, and peer workers) that youth can engage with flexibly throughout their time in the project. HOP-C workers also coordinate with other professionals/agencies (e.g., existing case workers, housing workers, employment workers, etc.) to provide individualized support to each youth. Furthermore, peer workers organize and facilitate social outings and drop-ins for youth. The desired outcomes of this program relate to maintaining stable housing, pursuing/maintaining school/employment, improving mental health outcomes and promoting greater well-being and quality of life.

Scientific Rating NR

Pathways to Success

Pathways to Success is an intensive, youth-driven case management model with the long-term goal of preventing homelessness among youth with foster care experience. The model is built around case managers, called Navigators, who are trained in a case management approach called Engaging Youth in a Coach-Like Way. In this approach, Navigators develop a coaching relationship to support youth. Youth direct the intervention by setting goals related to the outcome areas of housing, education, employment, health and well-being, and permanent connections. Meanwhile, Navigators deploy an individualized services array tailored to each youth’s needs, strengths, and goals. In addition to Engaging Youth in a Coach-like Way, Navigators use a variety of tools and resources to support youth in these domains, such as flex funds and referrals to relevant resources.

Scientific Rating NR